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📡 Signals, Morse Code & Messages

How to get a message across with no phones and no working radio: learning Morse by ear, sending it by lamp, whistle, flag or smoke, calling for help from the ground to an aircraft, mirrors and signal fires (and their danger in fire season), semaphore, alarm codes, runners, message forms, a neighborhood OK/HELP card plan, and what to listen to. The books are in Comms-Signals\Morse-Code, Comms-Signals\Visual-Sound-Signals and Comms-Signals\Messaging-Plans. Radios: the Radio guide and the Radio-Weather folder.

⚠️ Rules that prevent the worst outcomes

• Three of anything means "help" — three fires, three blasts, three shots. Use threes for nothing else (FM 3-05.70, p. 318).
• No signal fires or "tree torches" in fire season (roughly June–October). In our dry summers they can start a wildfire that kills the people signaling. Use a mirror, cloth panels, ground symbols and sound instead.
• Learn only today's 5-symbol ground code: V = need help, X = need medical help (Pub 102, p. 144; the five symbols drawn). An old Army code in the library uses X for "unable to proceed".
• Never hold a mirror flash on a pilot's cockpit for more than a few seconds — it can blind them (FM 3-05.70, p. 324).
• Learn Morse from the International table only. The 1911 Scout handbook prints old American Morse, different for many letters.
• Agree every alarm signal in advance, and use the alarm bell or horn for nothing else (FM 24-5, p. 129).

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👂 Learning Morse by ear

Morse is sounds, not dots on paper. Think of each letter as a sound ("di-dah" is A), never count dots and dashes, and practice by whistling or saying the sounds aloud (TM 11-459, pp. 3–5).

Two proven methods (Pierpont, pp. 159–161; pp. 171–172):

• Koch method: start with two letters sent fast (12 words per minute or more). Add one new letter at a time, and only when you copy 90% correctly. Don't look at a chart.
• Farnsworth method: each letter is always sent at full speed (18–25 wpm), with wide gaps between letters that you close up as you improve.
• Both avoid the "10 wpm plateau" of learning slowly (p. 161).
• Short sessions work best: Koch recommended two half-hour sessions a day, spread apart; even 45 minutes gave less (p. 160).

A 30-day plan (rule of thumb, built on Koch's rules). A partner sends from the table below by whistle or flashlight while you write what you hear. If you fall behind, stretch the plan — accuracy matters more than the calendar.

Days	What to do (two half-hour sessions a day)
1–2	Two letters that sound very different, such as K and M, in random mixes, until you get 9 in 10.
3–20	Add one letter each time you reach 90% on a 5-minute mix. A common Koch order: K M R S U A P T L O W I N J E F Y V G Q Z H B C D X (general practice).
21–25	Numbers, then period, comma, question mark and slash. Keep mixing in all the letters.
26–28	Procedure signals (AR, K, SK, BT, AS) and the calling routine below. Short real messages.
29–30	Whole messages with your partner, by lamp and by whistle, across a field.

• Send each letter at full speed, even as a beginner — slow down only by leaving longer gaps between letters (TM 11-459, p. 4).
• Look-alikes (S/H, U/V, and mirror pairs like B/V, D/U) cause most errors — give the ones you miss extra practice (Pierpont, p. 159).
• Copy behind: at higher speeds, let a letter or two go by before writing (TM 11-459, p. 5).
• After day 30, ten minutes a day keeps the skill (rule of thumb).

If you also learn to send on a hand key: the key and how to hold it; Telegraph key.

📚 Go deeper: Pierpont — the whole learning method; TM 11-459 — the Army's sound-method lessons.

🔤 Morse quick reference (print this)

International Morse, from Pub 102, p. 21 and ITU-R M.1677-1, pp. 4–5. Read . as "di" (short) and - as "dah" (long). Pictures and sound files: Morse code. To translate, hear it played, flash it as a signal lamp or practise sending it: the 📡 Morse code tool. Printed charts: Pub 102 Morse chart, Navy NEETS chart.

Letter	Code	Letter	Code	Letter	Code	Letter	Code
A	.-	H	....	O	---	V	...-
B	-...	I	..	P	.--.	W	.--
C	-.-.	J	.---	Q	--.-	X	-..-
D	-..	K	-.-	R	.-.	Y	-.--
E	.	L	.-..	S	...	Z	--..
F	..-.	M	--	T	-
G	--.	N	-.	U	..-

Number	Code	Number	Code	Mark	Code
1	.----	6	-....	Period	.-.-.-
2	..---	7	--...	Comma	--..--
3	...--	8	---..	Question	..--..
4	....-	9	----.	Slash	-..-.
5	.....	0	-----

Procedure signals — each is sent as one run-together sound with no gap (ITU, p. 5; Pub 102, pp. 24–25, 140; Prosigns for Morse code):

Signal	Code	Means
SOS (SOS)	...---...	Distress
AR	.-.-.	End of message
K	-.-	Over — your turn to send
BT	-...-	Break between message parts
SK	...-.-	End of contact
AS	.-...	Wait
8 dots	........	Error, I'll resend
R / DE / CQ		Received / "this is" / calling all stations

Timing is everything (ITU, p. 5; Pub 102, p. 9): a dash is 3 dots long; the gap inside a letter is 1 dot, between letters 3 dots, between words 7 dots. With a lamp or horn, make dots a little shorter so they can't be mistaken for dashes. The standard lamp speed is about 40 letters a minute.

AT ME as on-and-off time: a dash is 3 dots; the gaps are 1, 3 and 7 dots long (a diagram drawn for this guide).

How to call (ITU, p. 7): their call sign (no more than twice), DE, your call sign, K. They answer the same way. End each message with AR; whoever sent the last message ends the contact with SK. Without radio licenses, give each household a short call sign — two letters is enough (rule of thumb).

📚 Go deeper: ITU-R M.1677-1 — the official standard; Pub 102 — tables and procedure; NEETS 12, p. 48 — another Morse chart.

🔦 Morse without a radio: light, sound, flags and smoke

• Light: flashlight, lantern or car headlights, with a hat or board as a shutter. Short flash = dot, longer flash = dash (Bluejackets, p. 442). Best at dusk and night. See Signal lamp; aiming a lamp's beam at a far station: FM 24-5 drawing.
• Sound: whistle, horn or bugle (Whistle, Bugle) — short blast = dot, long blast = dash. On a drum, one tap = dot, two quick taps = dash. Sound works in fog and at night (Signal Book 1916, p. 34) but is slow and easily confused — keep to short, pre-agreed messages (Pub 102, p. 17).
• Flags or arms: call with "AA AA AA" and end with AR (Pub 102, pp. 19–20). The Army rule: flag swung to your left for a dash, to your right for a dot (FM 3-05.70, p. 328).
• Smoke: spread a blanket over a smoky fire and lift it off to send short and long puffs (Seton, p. 270). Not in fire season — see the fire section below. See Smoke signal.
• Knocking through a wall: Morse, or the 5×5-grid tap code (general practice).

If this goes wrong	Try this (rule of thumb)
Dots and dashes blur together	Very short dots, long dashes, clear gaps
They keep missing words	Lengthen the gaps, not the letters; send each word twice
Lamp can't be seen by day	Use a mirror or a flag

📚 Go deeper: Pub 102, pp. 17–20 — sound, flag and arm signaling; Signal Book 1916, p. 34 — whistle and drum codes.

🆘 Distress signals and talking to aircraft

• Threes: three fires, three columns of smoke, three shots or three whistle blasts mean distress, because nature rarely makes things in threes (FM 3-05.70, p. 318; AFH 10-644, p. 509).
• SOS by light, sound or flag: three short, three long, three short, sent as one sound and repeated (FM 3-05.70, p. 328).
• A flag flown upside down signals distress (Signal Book 1916, p. 41).

Body signals to aircraft — stand in the open, move slowly and repeat until understood (FM 21-60, p. 59; the signals drawn):

Signal	Means
Both arms straight up	"Pick us up"
One arm up	"All OK, do not wait" — easy to confuse with the one above, so be deliberate
Lying on your back, arms stretched overhead	"Need medical assistance"
Arms waving, crossed overhead	"Do not land here"
Cloth waved up and down / side to side	Yes / No
Arms out to the sides, slowly raised and lowered again and again	Official distress signal (Pub 102, p. 140)

Body signals to a pilot, each with its meaning; face the aircraft in the open and move slowly (FM 3-05.70, p. 330).

How a plane says "understood" (Pub 102, p. 144; AFH 10-644, p. 518): it rocks its wings by day, or flashes its landing or navigation lights twice at night (or flashes Morse T or R). Not understood: it flies straight and level without rocking, or flashes RPT (aircraft replies drawn; Search and rescue).

📚 Go deeper: FM 21-60, p. 59 — body signals drawn; Pub 102, p. 140 — official distress signals; Distress signal.

✖️ Ground-to-air symbols (print this)

The code in use worldwide today has five symbols (ICAO) (Pub 102, p. 144; AFH 10-644, p. 516; FM 3-05.70, p. 329). See them laid out: FM 3-05.70 drawing, Pub 102 chart:

Symbol	Means
V	Require assistance
X	Require medical assistance
N	No
Y	Yes
↑ (arrow)	Proceeding in this direction

Making them seen (AFH 10-644, pp. 514–517):

1. Big: lines at least 3 ft wide and 18 ft long, bigger if you can, about a 2:3 shape (size drawing). The Army manuals disagree (4 m × 6 m in FM 3-05.70, p. 329; 1 m × 6 m in FM 21-76, p. 243) — bigger is always better.
2. Straight lines and square corners — nature has none.
3. Contrast: outline it with green boughs, rocks or brush so it casts shadows. Orange cloth vanishes against green or brown (contrast example).
4. One path in and out, so you don't scuff it.
5. High, open ground seen from every side — a field, a river gravel bar, a logged ridge (local examples: rule of thumb).
6. A cloth banner on a pole catches the eye and shows a pilot the wind (pennants and banners).

Sizes for a ground symbol: each line 3 ft wide and 18 ft long (1 to 6), the whole symbol about 18 by 27 ft (AFH 10-644, p. 515).

⚠️ Don't mix codes. The older 18-symbol Army code (FM 21-60, p. 60) gives X a different meaning. Teach only the five above.

📚 Go deeper: AFH 10-644, ch. 21 — size, contrast and placement with photos; FM 3-05.70, p. 329 — the five symbols drawn.

🪞 Signal mirrors

The best daytime signal. A mirror flash has been seen up to 100 miles away and it works even on hazy or overcast days (AFH 10-644, p. 509). See Signal mirror.

Aiming without a sighting hole (AFH 10-644, pp. 510–511):

1. Hold one arm out and make a V with two fingers, with the plane or distant hill in the V (drawing; FM 3-05.70 drawing).
2. Tilt the mirror so the bright spot of light lands on your fingers, then work it through the V onto the target.
3. Or line the target up with the top of a 4–5 ft stake, and sight along the mirror's top edge onto the stake top (drawing).
4. Keep sweeping the horizon even when nothing is in sight — a pilot may see you first.

Aiming with a stake (step 3): line the stake top up with the aircraft, then tilt the mirror until the flash lands on the stake top (AFH 10-644, p. 511).

• No mirror? A can lid, polished metal, foil or a shiny card will do (p. 510). The military mirror with a sighting hole, for comparison: the MK-3 signal mirror.
• Don't flash rapidly, and don't hold the beam on the cockpit for more than a few seconds — it can blind the pilot (FM 3-05.70, p. 324).
• Talking with mirrors: the old Army heliograph flashed Morse by mirror between hilltops; two people on sunny ridges can do the same (general practice).

📚 Go deeper: AFH 10-644, pp. 509–511 — mirror aiming with pictures; Signal Book 1916 — the heliograph and lantern.

🔥 Signal fires and smoke — and the wildfire danger

What the manuals teach (AFH 10-644, pp. 511–512):

• Three fires in a triangle or a line. AFH 10-644 says about 100 ft apart; FM 3-05.70 says 25 m (83 ft) (p. 318). Bright flames at night, lots of smoke by day.
• Smoke works best on calm, clear days and has been seen up to 50 miles away.
• White smoke (green leaves, moss, wet plants) shows against dark forest. Black smoke (rubber, oily rags, plastic) shows against snow or sky — stay upwind of it (general practice).
• Lay the fires before aircraft come, ready to light in seconds.

⚠️ Illinois Valley: June to October, do NOT build signal fires.

• Only about 15% of our yearly rain falls April to September, and summer afternoon humidity runs 25–30% (NRCS soil survey, p. 5). A tree torch or a spark can start a wildfire that kills the people signaling (Wildfire).
• Clearing to bare earth under a tree torch, as the manuals say, is not enough in our brush and grass (AFH 10-644, p. 513; FM 3-05.70, p. 319).
• A gasoline smoke pot can explode when lit (AFH 10-644, p. 514). Pen flares and tracer rounds start fires too (FM 3-05.70, p. 321).
• In fire season use: mirror, cloth panels and ground symbols, a banner on a pole, whistles and horns.
• If you must burn (wet season, or truly no choice): a small fire on a cleared, wetted patch, with water, a shovel and a person watching it, put dead out afterward (general practice).

📚 Go deeper: AFH 10-644, pp. 511–514 — fire and smoke signals; Firewood guide — ashes and fire-season burning rules.

🚩 Flags, semaphore and signal stations

Simple flag colors (FM 21-60, p. 37; Army flag signals drawn): red = danger; green = all clear / understood; yellow = disregard. At night use colored flashlights. Good for a gate or a lookout.

Semaphore spells words with two flags (or bare arms) held at clock positions — by day and in sight only. Pictures: Bluejackets Manual, pp. 444–447 and Flag semaphore; full charts: Bluejackets alphabet, Signal Book 1916 hand-flag chart, FM 24-5 semaphore code.

• Letters A to G use one arm stepping around a circle (Scout Handbook 1911, p. 234).
• After the numeral sign, A–I mean 1–9 and K means 0.
• Always face the receiving station. The receiver stops the sender by holding both arms straight out sideways (Signal Book 1916, pp. 22–23).

Siting a flag or lamp station (Signal Book 1916, pp. 43–44):

• Stand where the background behind you, as the other station sees it, is one plain color. Use a white flag against green or dark hillsides.
• Record the compass bearing to each partner station and drive two aiming stakes in line with it (Compass).
• How far you can see to a ground-level object: eye 10 ft up, about 4 miles; 30 ft, about 7; 100 ft, about 13. Ridges around the valley make good relay points (Horizon).

📚 Go deeper: Bluejackets, p. 444 — semaphore drawn; Signal Book 1916 — semaphore and station siting; FM 21-60 — arm-and-hand signals.

📣 Whistles, bells and alarm codes

• Range: most whistle or shout contacts happen within 200 yards, a few at about a mile. A pole banged on a hollow log also carries (AFH 10-644, p. 509).
• Rapid strokes of a bell, horn or whistle = "general alarm — act now", no answer needed (Signal Book 1916, p. 38).
• Every alarm must be agreed in advance, known to everyone, and used only with good cause (same page). A bell, siren or air horn kept for alarms is never used for anything else (FM 24-5, p. 129; Air horn, Siren). Visual signals get misunderstood — standardize and practice them (FM 21-60, p. 5).
• The 1911 Scout whistle code is a good start: one long blast = "attention, look out for my next signal"; two short = "all right"; a string of short, sharp blasts = "rally, danger, alarm" (Scout Handbook 1911, p. 236).

Make a household/neighborhood signal card (rule of thumb — fill in your own and post it):

Signal	Means	Answer
3 blasts, repeated	I need help — come to me	2 short blasts: "heard you, coming"
String of short, sharp blasts / rapid bell	General alarm (fire, intruders) — act on the plan	None needed
Red cloth on the gate	Danger, don't come in
Green cloth on the gate	All clear

📚 Go deeper: Signal Book 1916, pp. 38–41 — alarm and distress signals; FM 24-5, p. 129 — alarm devices.

🏃 Runners, relays and written messages

Briefing a runner (FM 24-5 (1939), pp. 68, 70) — tell them:

• who the message is for and where to find them;
• which route, and which danger spots to avoid;
• how fast to go, and whether to wait for a reply;
• where to report back, and what to do if it can't be delivered.

Spoken messages must be short. The runner repeats it back to you and memorizes it (p. 70). Write it down whenever you can.

Speeds and relays (FM 24-5, pp. 69, 71–72): a runner covers about 3 mph routine and 5 mph priority (urgent: as fast as they can and still arrive); a rider 6 and 8 mph. On dangerous routes send two runners in sight of each other, each with a copy, or use two routes. Mark routes with arrows at forks. For long, frequent runs, set up relay posts — say, a house halfway to O'Brien (rule of thumb).

Use a standard form. The ICS 213 has To, From, Subject, Date, Time (24-hour clock), Message, Approved by, Reply and Replied by. The sender keeps a copy; the reply comes back on the bottom (ICS Forms Booklet, pp. 65–66; the blank form; Incident Command System). Log every message and event with date and time on an ICS 214 activity log (p. 68).

The ham "radiogram" works on paper too (ARRL manual, p. 34): number and precedence, address, text of 25 words or fewer (X for a period), and signature. The "check" is the word count, so the receiver knows nothing was lost (a filled-in example, part by part).

Precedence (ARRL, p. 36): EMERGENCY (life or death — when in doubt, don't) → PRIORITY → WELFARE → ROUTINE.

Short codes save time:

• "ARL ONE" = "Everyone safe here. Please don't worry." "ARL TWO" = "Coming home as soon as possible." (ARRL, p. 39).
• One-letter signals you can flash or sound: V = I need assistance; W = I need medical assistance; K = I wish to communicate; N = no; C = yes (Pub 102, p. 26). Note: at sea W means medical help; on the ground the symbol is X. See International Code of Signals; the same letters as ship flags: International maritime signal flags.

📚 Go deeper: FM 24-5 (1939) — messengers, relay posts and a message center; ICS Forms Booklet — print blank 213 and 214 forms now; ARRL manual, pp. 33–39 — radiogram form and numbered texts.

🏘️ The neighborhood OK/HELP plan

From the rural edition of Map Your Neighborhood (MYN Rural, pp. 1–2):

1. Pick a Neighborhood Communication Site everyone knows: a mailbox cluster, a crossroads, or a central home or barn.
2. After a disaster, each household takes its OK/HELP card there with name, date and time, plus the kind of help needed, and tapes it up.
3. Anyone who can help writes on the card what they'll do and when, then reports back.
4. Someone checks every home.

Who to check first (MYN Discussion Guide, p. 8): HELP homes, then homes with no card — people there may be hurt. Then recheck the OK homes. Print the HELP/OK window card now (what it looks like).

Your household plan: a meeting place, a way to find each other if separated, and an out-of-area contact, posted at home (Oregon 2 Weeks Ready, p. 6; FEMA, p. 18). Add the neighborhood site, your signal card and a check-in time (rule of thumb).

Locally: the county plan counts on door-to-door notice, broadcast stations and amateur radio, and the RVCOG Disaster Registry lists residents needing special help (County EOP, p. 71). Know who they are on your road.

📚 Go deeper: MYN Discussion Guide — the first meeting, 9 steps after a disaster, neighbor map; MYN Rural — rural sites, wells and propane.

📻 Listening when you can't transmit

• NOAA Weather Radio repeats its message every 4–6 minutes; a SAME radio wakes up only for your county (NOAA brochure, p. 2; NOAA Weather Radio; Specific Area Message Encoding; Emergency Alert System). For Josephine County program SAME 041033 and try WXL85, 162.400 MHz (Medford). It officially covers eastern Josephine County, and mountain valleys may get poor reception — also try 162.475 and 162.550 and note which works at home (NOAA brochure, p. 3; Illinois Valley guide).
• AM reaches farther at night: the layer of the sky that soaks up AM signals by day fades after dark (Navy Basic Electronics, p. 328; layers of the ionosphere; Skywave). Listen for outside news after sunset.
• Keep every battery radio in the shelter. Small AM sets with built-in antennas are the most likely to survive an EMP (Nuclear War Survival Skills, p. 35).
• Log what you hear (time, station, message) and post news at the Neighborhood Communication Site, so one radio serves the whole road (rule of thumb).

📚 Go deeper: NOAA Weather Radio brochure — how SAME alerts work; Radio guide — shortwave, crystal sets and local frequencies.

⚠️ Old advice in the library to ignore

Book and page	What it says	Do this instead
Scout Handbook 1911, p. 230	Morse chart	It is American (railroad) Morse, different for many letters. Use the International table above.
Scout Handbook 1911, p. 232; Seton, p. 132	Myer "wigwag" flag code	Obsolete. Use Morse by flag (left = dash, right = dot) or semaphore.
Signal Book 1916, p. 37	Phonetic alphabet "Able, Boy…"	Use the NATO alphabet (Alpha, Bravo…) in the Radio guide.
Seton, p. 271	Two smokes = "I am lost"; three smokes = "good news"; a two-shot/one-shot hunters' code	Today three of anything = distress.
FM 21-60, p. 60	18-symbol ground code; X = "unable to proceed"	Use the 5-symbol code: X = need medical help.
FM 3-05.70, p. 328	Whistle heard "1.6 km (3/4 mile)"	1.6 km is 1 mile, not 3/4. Plan on 200 yards.
AFH 10-644, pp. 513–514; FM 3-05.70, pp. 319, 321	Tree torches, gasoline smoke pots, pen flares, tracer rounds	Fire and explosion hazards. Never in fire season.

📚 Go deeper: Pub 102 — today's international distress signals; AFH 10-644 — the modern survival-signaling chapter.

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🖼️ Pictures & diagrams

Look before you try it. 🖼️ = drawings in the books on this drive; 📷 = photos in the offline Wikipedia.

Morse code

• International Morse charts — Pub 102, p. 21; NEETS 12, p. 48; Morse code
• Procedure signals and SOS — Prosigns for Morse code; SOS
• A hand key and how to hold it — TM 11-459, p. 21; Telegraph key

Light, sound and smoke

• Signal lamps and aiming the beam — FM 24-5, p. 107; Signal lamp
• Whistles, bugles and horns — Whistle; Bugle; Air horn
• Smoke and tap codes — Smoke signal; Tap code

Talking to aircraft

• Body signals — FM 3-05.70, p. 330; FM 21-60, p. 59
• How a plane answers — AFH 10-644, p. 518; FM 3-05.70, p. 333
• The five ground-to-air symbols — FM 3-05.70, p. 329; Pub 102, p. 144; AFH 10-644, p. 516
• Making symbols big and easy to see — sizes, AFH 10-644, p. 515; contrast, p. 516; banners, p. 518
• Distress signals and rescue — Distress signal; Search and rescue

Signal mirrors

• Aiming through a V of fingers — AFH 10-644, p. 510; FM 3-05.70, p. 324
• Aiming with a stake — AFH 10-644, p. 511
• The MK-3 sighting mirror — FM 3-05.70, p. 323; Signal mirror
• Mirror Morse between hilltops — Heliograph

Flags and semaphore

• Army flag signals — FM 21-60, p. 38
• Semaphore alphabet charts — Bluejackets, p. 445; Signal Book 1916, p. 26; FM 24-5, p. 115; Flag semaphore
• Ship letter flags — International maritime signal flags

Messages and neighbors

• ICS 213 message form — ICS Forms Booklet, p. 65; Incident Command System
• Radiogram, filled in — ARRL manual, p. 35
• HELP/OK window card — Map Your Neighborhood card
• Weather-radio alerts — NOAA Weather Radio; Specific Area Message Encoding

🔗 Related guides

• Radio guide — ham, GMRS, CB and shortwave; voice distress calls and the NATO alphabet
• Illinois Valley — Start Here — local weather-radio stations, repeaters, nets and evacuation levels
• Navigation and weather guide — compass bearings to signal stations, reading the weather before a trip
• Community and barter guide — organizing the neighbors who share your signal plan
• Field care guide — what to do while help is on the way
• EMP guide — keeping radios and lights working
• Firewood guide — fire-season burning and ash rules
• On Foot: backpacking and travel — how much to carry, packs, feet and blisters, water and food on the move, camps, river crossings and safety on the road.